Rubber
Read Rubber and check the IELTS Reading answers. The plants that produce rubber are spread right across the globe, and grow in many different habitats. One might think it likely, therefore, that humankind has known about rubber for thousands of years. Yet, unlike other crops of economic importance,…
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The plants that produce rubber are spread right across the globe, and grow in many different habitats. One might think it likely, therefore, that humankind has known about rubber for thousands of years. Yet, unlike other crops of economic importance, rubber led a relatively anonymous life until the last 150 years or so. The Indians of South America appear to be the first people to have understood the properties of rubber, and the Aztecs of what is now Mexico were the first to be recorded using the substance; a wall painting dating back to the sixth century depicts a scene of a tribute offering of crude rubber. With the arrival of Columbus in the Americas and the resulting Spanish influx, further evidence starts to appear concerning the Native American use of rubber. Antonio de Herrera y Tordesillas describes a ritual game played with a rubber ball at the court of the Aztec Emperor Montezuma II, and the Mayan and Toltec people are known to have taken part in similar activities. Rubber was also used to make raincoats, shoes, jars, torches and musical instruments, all of which must have been made from the indigenous Castilla elastica, as the Para rubber plant now favoured for rubber cultivation does not grow in the Mexican region.
Vocabulary from this passage
30 words worth learning before you sit the test, each with the sentence it appears in.
- alienate verb
To cause someone to feel isolated, estranged, or disconnected from a particular group or society
Students who undergo rapid mother tongue loss frequently become alienated from their home cultures.
- anomaly noun
Something that deviates significantly from what is standard, normal, expected, or predicted by typical models
Believers in market efficiency note that once an anomaly is published, it typically disappears quickly.
- chasm noun
A profound difference, wide gap, or deep division between people, viewpoints, or generational feelings
By adolescence, the resulting linguistic division between parents and children can evolve into an emotional chasm.
- commercial exploitation noun
The process of developing and utilizing natural resources or scientific discoveries to generate substantial profit
Scientists eagerly sought a chemical solvent that could prepare crude rubber for commercial exploitation.
- compound return noun
The rate of return that represents the cumulative effect of a series of gains on an original investment
The study calculated that the annual compound return on shares over the 35-year period was substantial.
- contention noun
A firmly held belief, assertion, or argument maintained during a debate or dispute
He responded with the contention that the utility of empirical analysis is proven by its expanding demand.
- efficient-market hypothesis noun
An economic theory stating that asset prices fully reflect all available information at any given time
The efficient-market hypothesis argues that finding predictable, exploitable movements in share prices is practically impossible.
- empirical research noun
A systematic methodology for gaining knowledge through direct observation, historical data, or practical experimentation
The extensive database provided the foundation for vast amounts of empirical research in modern finance.
- empiricist noun
A person who supports the theory that all knowledge is based on observational data and historical evidence
The new empiricists dismissed conventional qualitative ideas about financial market vulnerabilities as utterly outdated.
- equity risk premium noun
The excess return that investing in the stock market provides over a risk-free rate
Financial economists continually debate the precise size of the equity risk premium that investors should expect.
- impervious adjective
Not allowing fluid to pass through; unable to be affected by environmental factors like water
When coated with coagulated latex, the boots became completely impervious to water.
- indigenous adjective
Originating or occurring naturally in a particular place; native to a specific region or environment
The Aztecs manufactured goods using the indigenous Castilla elastica plant found in their region.
- influx noun
The arrival or entry of a large number of people, things, or resources into a location
The Spanish influx into the Americas generated extensive written documentation regarding indigenous rubber usage.
- inherent adjective
Existing in something as a permanent, essential, or inseparable attribute; intrinsic
Cautious individuals often avoid stocks because they fear the risk inherent in market investments.
- irrepressible adjective
Impossible to restrain, control, or hold back; continuing to grow with vigorous momentum
The nineteenth-century import statistics bear witness to the irrepressible rise of the rubber industry.
- linguistic division noun
The separation, social barrier, or communicative breakdown created between groups due to language differences
A severe linguistic division between immigrant parents and their assimilated teenagers often disrupts household communication.
- literacy noun
The advanced competence or academic ability to read, write, and process written information proficiently
Developing literacy in multiple languages allows pupils to gain deeper cognitive practice in processing complex texts.
- lucrative adjective
Producing a great deal of profit; financially highly rewarding or advantageous
Exploiting short-term variations in share prices can be an exceptionally lucrative strategy for informed investors.
- mainstream culture noun
The most widely shared systems of meaning, societal customs, and values within a given population
Strict assimilation policies assume minority students must abandon their heritage to integrate into the mainstream culture.
- malleable adjective
Capable of being altered, pressed, or permanently bent out of shape without breaking or cracking
The masticator machine rendered the waste strips highly malleable while retaining their natural elasticity.
- nurture verb
To care for, cultivate, and fiercely encourage the growth or progressive development of something
Research proves that multiple languages can mutually nurture each other in a supportive academic environment.
- pliant adjective
Easily bent or flexible; yielding readily to influence or physical pressure
Early unrefined rubber goods were deeply flawed, becoming excessively pliant during warm weather.
- pneumatic tyre noun
A hollow rubber covering filled with compressed air that fits around a wheel rim to absorb shock
The invention of the pneumatic tyre proved crucial for the imminent mass production of automobiles.
- predictor noun
A characteristic, variable, or circumstance that can be used to accurately forecast a future outcome
Proficiency in a child's mother tongue serves as a reliable predictor of their second language development.
- receptive skills noun
The ability to comprehend language when listening or reading, as opposed to actively producing it
Immigrant youth may retain receptive skills in their native language while exclusively speaking the majority tongue.
- solid foundation noun
A strong, secure underlying basis or initial groundwork upon which further learning is built
Children who begin school with a solid foundation in their native language rapidly achieve superior literacy abilities.
- stipulation noun
A specific condition, requirement, or formal constraint demanded as part of an agreement or theory
The economist's stipulation about short-term predictability led to numerous data mining investigations.
- subject-matter knowledge noun
Deep, specialized comprehension and factual understanding of a specific academic discipline or field of study
Bilingual programs effectively promote subject-matter knowledge without detriment to a child's majority language development.
- vagary noun
An unpredictable or erratic change in a situation, environment, or someone's behavior
Treated rubber items were no longer governed by the unexpected vagaries of the weather.
- vulcanisation noun
A chemical process that converts natural rubber into a more durable material by adding sulphur and heat
The discovery of vulcanisation resolved the temperature instability issues inherent in early rubber products.
Answers with explanations
- 1. FALSE
The statement claims that rubber plants grow **only in certain regions** of the world. However, the passage explicitly states that they are **spread right across the globe** and grow in **many different habitats**. Because the source directly contradicts the restrictive claim in the question, the correct answer is FALSE.
- 2. NOT GIVEN
The question asks if rubber was **extracted in Mexico** as early as the **sixth century**. The passage confirms that the Aztecs in Mexico were recorded **using** the substance and offering it as a tribute in the sixth century, but it never mentions whether they **extracted** it themselves at that time or obtained it another way. Because this specific information is missing, the answer is NOT GIVEN.
- 2-3: C
2: The question asks if rubber was **extracted in Mexico** as early as the **sixth century**. The passage confirms that the Aztecs in Mexico were recorded **using** the substance and offering it as a tribute in the sixth century, but it never mentions whether they **extracted** it themselves at that time or obtained it another way. Because this specific information is missing, the answer is NOT GIVEN.
3: The statement asserts that rubber from the **Castilla elastica** is of **poorer quality** than that from the **Para plant**. While the passage states that the Para plant is **now favoured** for cultivation, it does not explain why. It never compares the actual **quality** of the rubber produced by the two plants. Therefore, the statement is NOT GIVEN.
- 3. NOT GIVEN
The statement asserts that rubber from the **Castilla elastica** is of **poorer quality** than that from the **Para plant**. While the passage states that the Para plant is **now favoured** for cultivation, it does not explain why. It never compares the actual **quality** of the rubber produced by the two plants. Therefore, the statement is NOT GIVEN.
- 3-4: F
3: The statement asserts that rubber from the **Castilla elastica** is of **poorer quality** than that from the **Para plant**. While the passage states that the Para plant is **now favoured** for cultivation, it does not explain why. It never compares the actual **quality** of the rubber produced by the two plants. Therefore, the statement is NOT GIVEN.
4: The statement says a **French mathematician inspired real interest** in rubber amongst Europeans. The passage identifies Charles de la Condamine as a **French mathematician** whose publications **created considerable excitement among French scientists** regarding rubber. This matches the claim perfectly, making the statement TRUE.
- 4. TRUE
The statement says a **French mathematician inspired real interest** in rubber amongst Europeans. The passage identifies Charles de la Condamine as a **French mathematician** whose publications **created considerable excitement among French scientists** regarding rubber. This matches the claim perfectly, making the statement TRUE.
- 5. NOT GIVEN
The statement claims the process of **vulcanisation was discovered by accident**. The text confirms that Charles Goodyear **discovered** vulcanisation in 1839, but it provides no details regarding how he made this discovery (whether it was intentional research or a pure **accident**). Under IELTS logic, you cannot assume facts not in the text, so it is NOT GIVEN.
- 6. FALSE
The statement claims that **imports of crude rubber into Britain fell** during the **nineteenth century**. The passage directly contradicts this by describing an **irrepressible rise** in import levels during that exact century, going from 211 kg to tens of thousands of kg. Therefore, the answer is FALSE.
- 7. waterproof cloth
The summary asks what was **produced using rubber** in **1818**. The passage states that in 1818, James Syme used rubber to make **waterproof cloth**. The noun phrase fits perfectly into the gap both grammatically and factually, adhering to the limit of no more than three words.
- 8. waste strips
The summary notes that a **machine was invented for recycling** something made of rubber in **1820**. The passage states that in 1820, Thomas Hancock invented a machine that **chewed up waste strips for re-use**. The phrase "for re-use" is a direct synonym for "recycling". Thus, the noun phrase **waste strips** correctly fills the gap.
- 9. rigid
The summary states rubber could turn either **soft** or something else depending on the **temperature**. The passage explains that the material became **pliant** (soft) when warm and **rigid** when cold. The adjective "rigid" serves as the opposite state to "soft/pliant" based on temperature changes, fitting the grammatical structure perfectly.
- 10. stabilise
The summary mentions a **new process** in 1839 intended to **[10] the substance**. The passage states that in 1839, Goodyear discovered a process to **stabilise rubber** (the substance) using sulphur and heat. The gap requires a base verb to complete the infinitive phrase "to [10]", making **stabilise** the exact fit.
- 11. steam engines
The summary states rubber was used in the creation of the **[11]** during the **Industrial Revolution**. The passage confirms it played an important role in the Industrial Revolution by being employed in the **steam engines**. The plural noun phrase accurately reflects the text and fits the grammatical structure of the summary.
- 12. pneumatic tyre
The summary requires a noun representing what was **developed** in **1888**. The passage explicitly states that in 1888, John Boyd Dunlop produced the first **pneumatic tyre**. This invention phrase exactly answers what new creation was developed during that specific year.
- 13. mass production
The summary describes what began for the **motor car** a few years later. The text notes that following Dunlop's 1895 tyre use, the **mass production of cars** was on the horizon. The phrase **mass production** correctly fills the gap, linking the advancement in tyres to the subsequent explosion of the motor car industry.